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STRUCTURE OF YTTERBIUM ISOTOPES
By Prof. Lefteris Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) ( September 2014) Historically the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) along with the invalid relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY) led to the abandonment of the well-established electromagnetic laws, in favour of various contradicting nuclear theories, which could not lead to the nuclear structure. Under this physics crisis and using the charged UP and DOWN quarks , discovered by Gell-Mann and Zweig, I published my paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism ” (2003), which led to my discovery of the new structure of protons and neutrons given by proton = + 5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons neutron = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838.68 electrons The paper was also presented at a nuclear conference held at NCSR "Demokritos" (2002). Here one can see the 9 charged quarks in proton and the 12 ones in neutron able to give the charge distributions in nucleons for revealing the strong electromagnetic force for the nuclear binding in the correct nuclear structure by applying the laws of electromagnetism. You can see my papers of nuclear structure in my FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS CONCEPTS . Note that according to my discovery of the LAW OF ENERGY AND MASS the mass defect in the nuclear structure is due to the photon mass of the emitting dipolic photon presented at the international conference "Frontiers of fundamental physics" (1993) organised by the natural philosophers M. Barone and F. Selleri , who gave me an award including a disc of the atomic philosopher Democritus. Nevertheless today many physicist continue to apply not the well-established laws but the various fallacious nuclear structure models which lead to complications. Natural ytterbium (Yb) is a mixture of seven stable isotopes, Yb-168, Yb-170, Yb-171, Yb-172, Yb-173, Yb-174, and Yb-176, which altogether are present at concentrations of 3 parts per million. This element is mined in China, the United States, Brazil, and India in form of the minerals monazite, euxenite, and xenotime. The ytterbium concentration is low, because the element is found among many other rare earth elements; moreover, it is among the least abundant ones. Once extracted and prepared, ytterbium is somewhat hazardous as an eye and skin irritant. The metal is a fire and explosion hazard. The core of ytterbium , the Yb-140, with 70 protons and 70 neutrons (even number) forms a structure of high symmetry giving 7 stable isotopes. In general, since the additional p70n70 is a vertical system with S =0, the structure of Yb-140 (core) has S =0 with six horizontal planes of opposite spins . Note that two horizontal squares of opposite spins like the -HSQ and +HSQ exist under and over the structure of the six planes. They give also S = 0, because the two deuterons of -HSQ have S = -2 and the two deuterons of the +HSQ have S = +2. Of course a number of protons of such a core form blank positions able to receive 36 extra neutrons with two bonds per neutron for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions in the heavier stable Yb-176. Under this condition the stable Yb-168 with S =0 based on the Yb-140 with S =0 has 28 extra neutrons of opposite spins. On the other hand in the heavier unstable nuclides the more extra neutrons than those of the stable nuclides (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. ''' '''STRUCTURE OF Yb-148, Yb-150, Yb-152, Yb-154, Yb-156, Yb-158, Yb-160, Yb-162, Yb-164, Yb-166, Yb-168, Yb-170, Yb-172, Yb-174, Yb-176, Yb-178, AND Yb-180 WITH S =0 For understanding the structure of the above nuclides with even number of extra neutrons you must read my STRUCTURE OF Yb-168 . In this group the structure of the unstable nuclides is based also on the structure of Yb-140 (core) with S =0. For example the unstable Yb-166 with S= 0 has 26 extra neutrons of opposite spins. These extra neutrons fill the blank positions and make two bonds per neutron, but their small number cannot give enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions. However in the stable structures of Yb-168, Yb-170, Yb-172, Yb-174, and Yb-176 the greater number of extra neutrons gives enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the repulsions. Whereas in the unstable Yb-178 with S=0 the two more extra neutrons than those of the stable Yb-176 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. ' ' ' STRUCTURE OF Yb-153, Yb-155, Yb-157, Yb-159, Yb-161, Yb-163, Yb-165, Yb-167, Yb-171, Yb-173, Yb-175, Yb-179, AND Yb-181 WITH NEGATIVE SPINS' Similarly the structure of the above nuclides having odd number of extra neutrons is based on the same structure of Yb-140 (core) with S = 0. For example the unstable Yb-167 with S = -5/2 of 27 extra neutrons has 11 extra neutrons of positive spins and 16 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = 0 + 11(+1/2) + 16(-1/2) = -5/2 These extra neutrons fill the blank positions and make two bonds per neutron, but their small number cannot give enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions. However in the stable structures of Yb-171 with S= -1/2, and Yb-173 with S = -5/2 the greater number of extra neutrons gives enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the repulsions. Whereas in the unstable Yb-175 with S=-7/2 the two more extra neutrons than those of the stable Yb-173 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. ' ' STRUCTURE OF Yb-149, Yb-151, Yb-169, AND Yb-177 WITH POSITIVE SPINS Similarly the structures of such unstable nuclides of odd number of extra neutrons are based on the same structure of Yb-140 (core) having S = 0. For example the Yb-169 with S = +7/2 of 29 extra neutrons has 18 extra neutrons of positive spins and 11 extra neutrons of negative spins . That is S = 0 + 18(+1/2) + 11(-1/2) = + 7/2 These extra neutrons fill the blank positions and make two bonds per neutron, but their small number (smaller than those of the stable Yb-171) cannot give enough binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions. On the other hand in the unstable Yb-177 with S = +9/2 the 4 more extra neutron than those of the stable Yb-173 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. Category:Fundamental physics concepts